Schizophrenia Research
Volume 46, Issue 1 , Pages 17-23 , 30 November 2000

The antecedents of psychoses: a case–control study of selected risk factors

  • E Fuller Torrey

      Affiliations

    • Stanley Foundation Research Programs, 5430 Grosvenor Lane, Suite 200, Bethesda, MD 20814, USA
    • Corresponding Author InformationCorresponding author. Tel.: +1-301-571-2078; fax: +1-301-571-0769
    • ,
  • R Rawlings

      Affiliations

    • Laboratory of Clinical Studies, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, NIH, Building 10, Room 6S237A, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
    • ,
  • R.H Yolken

      Affiliations

    • Stanley Division of Developmental Neurovirology, Johns Hopkins University Medical Center, 600 North Wolfe Street, Blalock 1111, Baltimore, MD 21287-4933, USA

Received 22 June 1999 ,Accepted 3 December 1999.

References 

  1. Ando Y, Nakano S, Saito K, Shimamoto I, Ichijo M, Toyama T, et al. Transmission of adult T-cell leukemia retrovirus (HTLV-I) from mother to child: comparison of bottle- with breast-fed babies. Jpn. J. Cancer Res. 1987;78:322–324
  2. Bertolli J, St. Louis ME, Simonds RJ, Nieburg P, Kamenga M, Brown C, et al. Estimating the timing of mother-to-child transmission of human immunodeficiency virus in a breast-feeding population in Kinshasa, Zaire. J. Infect. Dis. 1996;174:722–726
  3. Bond C, Cleland LG. Rheumatoid arthritis: are pets implicated in its etiology?. Semin. Arthritis Rheum. 1996;25:308–317
  4. Cannon M, Jones P, Gilvarry C, Rifkin L, McKenzie K, Foerster A, et al. Premorbid social functioning in schizophrenia and bipolar disorder: similarities and differences. Am. J. Psychiatry. 1997;154:1544–1550
  5. Cantor-Graae E, Cardenal S, Ismail BT, McNeil TF. Obstetric recall in mothers to schizophrenic patients. abstract Schizophr. Res. 1998;29:14–15
  6. Cook SD, Dowling PC. A possible association between house pets and multiple sclerosis. Lancet. 1977;1:980–982
  7. Done DJ, Johnstone EC, Frith CD, Golding J, Shepherd PM, Crow TJ. Complications of pregnancy and delivery in relation to psychosis in adult life: data from the British perinatal mortality survey sample. Br. Med. J. 1991;302:1576–1580
  8. Driscoll JB, Anderson DC. Past pets and Paget's disease. Lancet. 1985;2:919–921
  9. Gottlieb NL, Ditchek N, Poiley J, Kiem IM. Pets and rheumatoid arthritis: an epidemiologic survey. Arthritis Rheum. 1974;17:229–234
  10. Jarrett O. Transmission and control of feline leukaemia virus infections. In:  Minson AC,  Neil JC,  McRea MA editor. Viruses and Cancer. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 1994;p. 235–245
  11. Jones DRE, Hopkinson ND, Powell RJ. Autoantibodies in pet dogs owned by patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Lancet. 1992;332:1378–1380
  12. Kendler KS, Gallagher TJ, Abelson JM, Kessler RC. Lifetime prevalence, demographic risk factors and diagnostic validity of nonaffective psychosis as assessed in a US community sample. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry. 1996;53:1022–1031
  13. Kinney DK, Yurgelun-Todd DA, Levy DL, Medoff D, Lajonchere CM, Radford-Paregol M. Obstetrical complications in patients with bipolar disorder and their siblings. Psychiatry Res. 1993;48:47–56
  14. Kurtzke JF, Priester WA. Dogs, distemper, and multiple sclerosis in the United States. Acta Neurol. Scand. 1979;60:312–319
  15. Lewis G, David A, Andreasson S, Allebeck P. Schizophrenia and city life. Lancet. 1992;340:137–140
  16. Lewis P, Nduati R, Kreiss JK, John GC, Richardson BA, Mbori-Ngacha D, et al. Cell-free human immunodeficiency virus type 1 in breast milk. J. Infect. Dis. 1998;177:34–39
  17. Loar AS. The zoonotic potential of feline leukemia virus. Zoonot. Dis. 1987;17:105–115
  18. LOGXACT for Windows, 1996. [Software program.] Cytel Software Corp., Cambridge, MA.
  19. Marcelis M, van Os J. High rates of psychosis in urban areas: effect of urban birth or residence?. abstract Schizophr. Res. 1998;29:27
  20. McCreadie RG. The Nithsdale schizophrenia surveys 16. Breast-feeding and schizophrenia: preliminary results and hypotheses. Br. J. Psychiatry. 1997;170:334–337
  21. McNeil TF. Perinatal risk factors and schizophrenia: selective review and methodological concerns. Epidemiol. Rev. 1995;17:107–112
  22. Miller RG. Simultaneous Statistical Inference. New York: McGraw-Hill; 1966;
  23. Mortensen PB, Pedersen CB, Westergaard T, Wohlfahrt J, Ewald H, Mors O, et al. Effects of family history and place and season of birth on the risk of schizophrenia. New Engl. J. Med. 1999;340:603–608
  24. O'Callaghan E, Larkin C, Waddington JL. Obstetric complications in schizophrenia and the validity of maternal recall. Psychol. Med. 1990;20:89–94
  25. Osterkamp A, Sands DJ. Early feeding and birth difficulties in childhood schizophrenia: a brief study. J. Genet. Psychol. 1962;101:363–366
  26. Schlesselman J. Case–Control Studies: Design Conduct Analysis. New York: Oxford University Press; 1982;
  27. Stamp TCB, Mackney PH, Kelsey CR. Innocent pets and Paget's disease?. letter Lancet. 1986;2:917
  28. Steinwachs DM, Kasper JD, Skinner EA. Family perspectives on meeting the needs for care of severely mentally ill relatives: a national survey. Innovat. Res. 1992;1:21–23
  29. Takei N, Sham PC, O'Callaghan E, Murray RM. Cities winter birth and schizophrenia. Lancet. 1992;340:558
  30. Takei N, Sham PC, O'Callaghan E, Glover G, Murray RM. Schizophrenia: increased risk associated with winter and city birth — a case-controlled study in 12 regions within England and Wales. J. Epidemiol. Community Health. 1995;49:106–109
  31. Tan JS. Human zoonotic infections transmitted by dogs and cats. Arch. Intern. Med. 1997;157:1933–1943
  32. Torrey EF. Are we overestimating the genetic contribution to schizophrenia?. Schizophr. Bull. 1992;18:159–170
  33. Torrey EF, Miller J, Rawlings R, Yolken RH. Seasonality of births in schizophrenia and bipolar disorder: a review of the literature. Schizophr. Res. 1997;28:1–38
  34. Torrey EF, Yolken RH. Could schizophrenia be a viral zoonosis transmitted from house cats?. Schizophr. Bull. 1995;21:167–171
  35. van Os J, Jones P, Lewis G, Wadsworth M, Murray R. Developmental precursors of affective illness in a general population birth cohort. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry. 1997;54:625–631
  36. van Os J, Linnartz C, Marcelis M, Navarro F, Selten JP, Murray R. City birth and schizophrenia incidence: is the relationship diagnosis-specific?. abstract Schizophr. Res. 1997;24:260
  37. Wyatt RJ, Apud JA, Potkin S. New directions in the prevention and treatment of schizophrenia: a biological perspective. Psychiatry. 1996;59:357–370!
  38. Yoshinaga M, Yashiki S, Oki T, Fujiyoshi T, Nagata Y, Sonoda S. A maternal risk factor for mother-to-child HTLV-I transmission: viral antigen-producing capacities in culture of peripheral blood and breast milk cells. Jpn. J. Cancer Res. 1995;86:649–654

PII: S0920-9964(99)00237-6

Schizophrenia Research
Volume 46, Issue 1 , Pages 17-23 , 30 November 2000

Article Tools