Schizophrenia Research
Volume 100, Issue 1 , Pages 4-19 , March 2008

Schizophrenia, “Just the Facts”: What we know in 2008: Part 1: Overview

  • Rajiv Tandon

      Affiliations

    • University of Florida, 3706 Glin Circle, Tallahassee, FL 32309, United States
    • Corresponding Author InformationCorresponding author.
    • ,
  • Matcheri S. Keshavan

      Affiliations

    • Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan, United States
    • ,
  • Henry A. Nasrallah

      Affiliations

    • University of Cinncinnatti, Cinncinnatti, Ohio, United States

Received 28 January 2008 ,Accepted 28 January 2008.

References 

  1. Abbott C, Bustillo J. What have we learned from proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy about schizophrenia: a critical update. Curr. Opin. Psychiatry. 2006;19:135–139
  2. Abi-Dargham A. Alterations in serotonin transmission in schizophrenia. Int. Rev. Neurobiol. 2007;78:133–164
  3. Achim AM, LePage M. Episodic memory-related activation in schizophrenia: meta-analysis. Br. J. Psychiatry. 2005;187:500–509
  4. Akbarian S, Bunney WE, Potkin SG, et al. Altered distribution of nicotinamide–adenine dinucleotide phosphate–diaphorase neurons in temporal lobe of schizophrenics implies disturbances of cortical development. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry. 1993;50:169–177
  5. Aleman A, Hijman R, de Haan EH, et al. Memory impairment in schizophrenia: a meta-analysis. Am. J. Psychiatry. 1999;156:1358–1366
  6. Aleman A, Kahn RS, Selten JP. Sex differences in the risk of schizophrenia: evidence from meta-analysis. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry. 2003;60:565–571
  7. Aleman A, Somner IE, Kahn RS. Efficacy of slow repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulatin in the treatment of resistant auditory hallucinations in schizophrenia: a meta-analysis. J. Clin. Psychiatry. 2007;68:416–421
  8. American Psychiatric Association . Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders — 4th edition-Text Revision (DSM-IV-TR). Washington D.C.: American Psychiatric Association; 2000;
  9. Amaddeo F, Tansella M. Urbanicity and schizophrenia: from statistical association to causality. Epidemiol. Psichiatr. Soc. 2006;15:239–241
  10. Andreasen NC, Rezai K, Alliger R, et al. Hypofrontality in neuroleptic-naive patients and in patients with chronic schizophrenia: assessment with xenon 133 single-photon emission computed tomography and the Tower of London. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry. 1992;49:943–958
  11. Angermeyer MC, Kuhn L. Gender differences in age at onset of schizophrenia. An overview. Eur. Arch. Psychiatr. Neurol. Sci. 1988;237:351–364
  12. Aylward E, Walker E, Bettes B. Intelligence in schizophrenia: meta-analysis of the research. Schizophr. Bull. 1984;10:430–459
  13. Baiano M, David A, Versace A, et al. Anterior cingulate volumes in schizophrenia: a systematic review and a meta-analysis of MRI studies. Schizophr. Res. 2007;93:1–12
  14. Barak Y, Achiron A, Mandel M, et al. Reduced cancer incidence among patients with schizophrenia. Cancer. 2005;104:2817–2821
  15. Beauchamp G, Gagnon A. Influence of diagnostic classification on gender ratio in schizophrenia. A meta-analysis of youths hospitalized for psychosis. Soc. Psychiatry Psychiatr. Epidemiol. 2004;39:1017–1022
  16. Becker V. Rokitansky and Virchow: throes about the scientific term of disease. Wien. Med. Wochenschr. 2005;155:463–467
  17. Benes FM, Lim B, Matzilevich D, et al. Regulation of the GABA cell phenotype in hippocampus of schizophrenics and bipolars. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2007;104:10164–10169
  18. Benson KL. Sleep in schizophrenia: impairments, correlates, and treatment. Psychiatr. Clin. North Am. 2006;29:1033–1045
  19. Benton MK, Schroeder HE. Social skills training with schizophrenia: a meta-analytic evaluation. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 1990;58:741–747
  20. Berganza CE, Mezzich JE, Pouncey C. Concepts of disease: their relevance for psychiatric diagnosis and classification. Psychopathology. 2005;38:166–170
  21. Bhugra D, Leff J, Mallett R, et al. Incidence and outcome of schizophrenia in Whites, African–Caribbeans and Asians in London. Psychol. Med. 1997;27:791–798
  22. Bilder RM, Kipschultz-Broch L, Reiter G, et al. Neuropsychological studies of first-episode schizophrenia. Schizophr. Res. 1991;4:381–397
  23. Bleuler E. Dementia Praecox, or the Group of Schizophrenias,1911. New York: International University Press; 1950;Translated by J Zinkin
  24. Bleuler M. The Schizophrenic Disorders. New Haven: Yale University Press; 1972;
  25. Bombin I, Arango C, Buchanan RW. Significance and meaning of neurological signs in schizophrenia: two decades later. Schizophr. Bull. 2005;31:962–977
  26. Bond GR. Assertive outreach for frequent users of psychiatric hospitals: a meta-analysis. J. Mental Health Adm. 1995;22:4–16
  27. Boos HB, Aleman A, Cahn W, et al. Brain volumes in relatives of patients with schizophrenia: a meta-analysis. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry. 2007;64:297–304
  28. Boydell J, van Os J, McKenzie K, et al. Incidence of schizophrenia in ethnic minorities in London: ecological study into interactions with the environment. BMJ. 2001;323:1336–1338
  29. Braff DL, Freedman R, Schork NJ, et al. Deconstructing schizophrenia: an overview of the use of endophenotypes in order to understand a complex disorder. Schizophr. Bull. 2007;33:21–32
  30. Bramon E, Rabe-Hesketh S, Sham P, et al. Meta-analysis of the P300 and P50 waveforms in schizophrenia. Schizophr. Res. 2004;70:315–329
  31. Bramon E, McDonald C, Croft RJ, et al. Is the P300 wave an endophenotype for schizophrenia? A meta-analysis and a family study. Neuroimage. 2005;27:960–968
  32. Bramon E, Walshe M, McDonald C, et al. Dermatoglyphics and schizophrenia: a meta-analysis and investigation of the impact of obstetric complications upon a–b ridge count. Schizophr. Res. 2005;75:399–404
  33. Brown S, Inskip H, Barraclough B. Causes of the excess mortality of schizophrenia. Br. J. Psychiatry. 2000;177:212–217
  34. Brown AS, Schaefer CA, Wyatt RJ, et al. Paternal age and risk of schizophrenia in adult offspring. Am. J. Psychiatry. 2002;159:1528–1533
  35. Buchsbaum MS, Hazlett EA. Positron emission tomography studies of abnormal glucose metabolism in schizophrenia. Schizophr. Bull. 1998;24:343–364
  36. Buchsbaum MS, Tang CY, Peled S, et al. MRI white matter diffusion anisotropy and PET metabolic rate in schizophrenia. Neuroreport. 1998;9:425–430
  37. Brunet-Gouet E, Decety J. Social brain dysfunctions in schizophrenia: a review of neuroimaging studies. Psychiatry Res., Neuroimaging. 2006;148:75–92
  38. Bustillo JR, Lauriello J, Horan W, Keith S. The psychosocial treatment of schizophrenia: an update. Am. J. Psychiatry. 2001;158:163–175
  39. Byrne M, Agerbo E, Bennedsen B, et al. Obstetric conditions and risk of first admission with schizophrenia: a Danish national register based study. Schizophr. Res. 2007;97:51–59
  40. Cannon TD, Kaprio J, Lonnqvist J, et al. The genetic epidemiology of schizophrenia in a Finnish twin cohort. A population-based modeling study. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry. 1998;55:67–74
  41. Cannon M, Jones PB, Murray RM. Obstetrical complications and schizophrenia: historical and meta-analytic review. Am. J. Psychiatry. 2002;159:1080–1092
  42. Cantor-Graae E, Selten JP. Schizophrenia and migration: a meta-analysis and review. Am. J. Psychiatry. 2005;162:12–24
  43. Cardno AG, Marshall EJ, Coid B, et al. Heritability estimates for psychotic disorders: the Maudsley twin psychosis series. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry. 1999;56:162–168
  44. Carney CP, Jones L, Woolson RF. Medical comorbidity in women and men with schizophrenia: a population-based study. J. Gen. Intern. Med. 2006;21:1133–1137
  45. Carpenter WT. Clinical constructs and therapeutic discovery. Schizophr. Res. 2004;72:69–73
  46. Carpenter WT, Heinrichs DW, Wagman AMI. Deficit and nondeficit forms of schizophrenia: the concept. Am. J. Psychiatry. 1988;145:578–583
  47. Caspi A, Moffitt TE, Cannon M, et al. Moderation of the effect of adolescent-onset cannabis use on adult psychosis by a functional polymorphism in the catechol-O-methyltransferase gene: longitudinal evidence of a gene x environment interaction. Biol. Psychiatry. 2005;57:1117–1127
  48. Chakos M, Lieberman J, Bilder RM, et al. Increase in caudate nuclei volumes of first-episode schizophrenic patients taking antipsychotic drugs. Am. J. Psychiatry. 1994;151:1430–1436
  49. Chakos M, Lieberman J, Hoffman E, et al. Effectiveness of second-generation antipsychotics in patients with treatment-resistant schizophrenia: a review and meta-analysis of randomized trials. Am. J. Psychiatry. 2001;158:518–526
  50. Chapman J. The early symptoms of schizophrenia. Br. J. Psychiatry. 1966;112:225–251
  51. Chouinard S, Poulin J, Stip E, et al. Sleep in untreated patients with schizophrenia: a meta-analysis. Schizophr. Bull. 2004;30:957–967
  52. Ciompi L. The natural history of schizophrenia in the long term. Br. J. Psychiatry. 1980;136:413–420
  53. Cochrane Collaboration. Cochrane Schizophrenia Group Publications. 2008;Accessed at szg.cochrane.org.
  54. Compton MT, Bollini AM, Mack LM, et al. Neurological soft signs and minor physical anomalies in patients with schizophrenia and related disorders, their first-degree biological relatives, and non-psychiatric controls. Schizophr. Res. 2007;94:64–73
  55. Corcoran C, Walker E, Huot R, et al. The stress cascade in schizophrenia: etiology and onset. Schizophr. Bull. 2003;29:671–692
  56. Costa E, Davis JM, Dong E, et al. A GABAergic cortical defect dominates schizophrenic pathophysiology. Crit. Rev. Neurobiol. 2004;16:1–23
  57. Coyle JT. Glutamate and schizophrenia: beyond the dopamine hypothesis. Cell. Mol. Neurobiol. 2006;26:365–384
  58. Creese I, Burt DR, Snyder SH. Dopamine receptor binding predicts clinical and pharmacological potencies of antischizophrenic drugs. Science. 1976;192:481–483
  59. Crow TJ. How and why genetic linkage has not solved the problem of psychosis: review and hypothesis. Am. J. Psychiatry. 2007;164:13–21
  60. Crow TJ, Ball J, Bloom SR, et al. Schizophrenia as an anomaly of development of cerebral asymmetry. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry. 1989;46:1145–1150
  61. Daumit GL, Pronovost PJ, Anthony CB, et al. Adverse events during medical and surgical hospitalizations for persons with schizophrenia. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry. 2006;63:267–272
  62. Davidson LL, Heinrichs RW. Quantification of frontal and temporal lobe brain-imaging findings in schizophrenia: a meta-analysis. Psychiatry Res. 2003;122:69–87
  63. Davies G, Welham J, Chant D, et al. A systematic review and meta-analysis of northern hemisphere season of birth studies in schizophrenia. Schizophr. Bull. 2003;29:587–593
  64. Davis KL, Stewart DG, Friedman JI, et al. White matter changes in schizophrenia: evidence for myelin-related dysfunction. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry. 2003;60:443–456
  65. Davis CE, Jeste DV, Eyler LT. Review of longitudinal functional neuroimaging studies of drug treatment in patients with schizophrenia. Schizophr. Res. 2005;78:45–60
  66. de Leon J, Diaz FJ. A meta-analysis of worldwide studies demonstrates an association between schizophrenia and tobacco smoking behaviors. Schizophr. Res. 2005;76:135–157
  67. DeLisi LE. Defining the course of brain structural change and plasticity in schizophrenia. Psychiatry Res. Neuroimaging. 1999;92:1–9
  68. DeLisi LE, Faraone SV. When is a positive association truly a positive in psychiatric genetics. Am. J. Med. Genet. B:. Neuropsychiatr. Genet. 2006;141:319–322
  69. DeLisi LE, Nasrallah HA. The legacy of Richard Jed Wyatt (1939–2002). Schizophr. Res. 2002;57:1–3
  70. DeLisi L, Hoff A, Neale C. Asymmetries in the superior temporal lobe in male and female schizophrenic patients: measures of the planum temporale and superior temporal gyrus by MRI. Schizophr. Res. 1994;12:19–28
  71. de Wilde OM, Bour LJ, Dingemans PM, et al. A meta-analysis of P50 studies in patients with schizophrenia and relatives: differences in methodology between research groups. Schizophr. Res. 2007;97:137–151
  72. Dohrenwend BP, Levav I, Shrout PE, et al. Socioeconomic status, psychiatric disorders and causation-selection issue. Science. 1992;255:946–952
  73. Dragovic M, Hammond G. Handedness in schizophrenia: a quantitative review of evidence. Acta Psychiatr. Scand. 2005;111:410–419
  74. Editorial . Where next with psychiatric illness?. Nature. 1988;336:95–96
  75. Egger M, Smith GD. Meta-analysis: promises and pitfalls. BMJ. 1997;31:1371–1374
  76. Ellard J. Did schizophrenia exist before the 18th century. Aust. N. Z. J. Psychiatry. 1987;21:306–314
  77. Evans AS. Causation and disease: the Henle-Koch postulates revisited. Yale J. Biol. Med. 1976;49:175–195
  78. Fearon P, Kirkbride JB, Morgan C, et al. Incidence of schizophrenia and other psychoses in ethnic minority groups: results from AESOP study. Psychol. Med. 2006;36:1541–1550
  79. Fenton WS. Depression, suicide, and suicide prevention in schizophrenia. Suicide Life-Threat. Behav. 2000;30:34–49
  80. Fioravanti M, Carlone O, Vitale B, et al. A meta-analysis of cognitive deficits in adults with a diagnosis of schizophrenia. Neuropsychol. Rev. 2005;15:73–95
  81. Flaum M, Swayze VW, O'Leary DS, et al. Effects of diagnosis, laterality, and gender on brain morphology in schizophrenia. Am. J. Psychiatry. 1995;152:704–714
  82. Frangou S, Sharma T, Alarcon G, et al. The Maudsley Family Study, II: endogenous event-related potentials in familial schizophrenia. Schizophr. Res. 1997;23:45–53
  83. Freedman R, Coon H, Myers-Worsley M, et al. Linkage of a neurophysiological deficit in schizophrenia to a chromosome 15 locus. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1997;94:587–592
  84. Fukushima J, Fukushima K, Chiba T, et al. Disturbances of voluntary control of saccadic eye movements in schizophrenic patients. Biol. Psychiatry. 1988;23:670–677
  85. Gallinat J, Mulert C, Bajbouj M, et al. Frontal and temporal dysfunction of auditory stimulus processing in schizophrenia. NeuroImage. 2002;17:110–117
  86. Geddes JR, Lawrie SM. Obstetric complications and schizophrenia: a meta-analysis. Br. J. Psychiatry. 1995;167:786–793
  87. Geyer MA, Krebs-Thomson K, Braff DL, Swerdlow NR. Pharmacological studies of prepulse inhibition models of sensorimotor gating deficits in schizophrenia: a decade in review. Psychopharmacology. 2001;156:117–154
  88. Glahn DC, Ragland JD, Abramoff A, et al. Beyond hypofrontality: a quantitative meta-analysis of functional neuroimaging studies of working memory in schizophrenia. Hum. Brain Mapp. 2005;25:60–69
  89. Gogos JA, Gerber DJ. Schizophrenia susceptibility genes: emergence of positional candidates and future directions. Trends Pharmacol. Sci. 2006;27:226–233
  90. Goldberg EM, Morrison SL. Schizophrenia and social class. Br. J. Psychiatry. 1963;109:785–802
  91. Goldberg TE, Goldman RS, Burdick KE, et al. Cognitive improvement after treatment with second-generation antipsychotic medications in first-episode schizophrenia: is it a practice effect?. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry. 2007;64:1115–1122
  92. Gottesman II, Gould TD. The endophenotype concept in psychiatry: etymology and strategic intentions. Am. J. Psychiatry. 2003;160:636–645
  93. Gould RA, Mueser KT, Bolton E, et al. Cognitive therapy for schizophrenia: an effect size analysis. Schizophr. Res. 2001;48:335–342
  94. Gray L, Hannan AJ. Dissecting cause and effect in the pathogenesis of psychiatric disorders: genes, environment, and behavior. Curr. Mol. Med. 2007;7:470–478
  95. Green MF. What are the functional consequences of neurocognitive deficits in schizophrenia?. Am. J. Psychiatry. 1996;153:321–330
  96. Greenhalgh J, Knight C, Hind D, et al. Clinical and cost-effectiveness of electroconvulsive therapy for depressive illness, schizophrenia, catatonia, and mania: systematic reviews and economic modeling studies. Health Technol. Assess. 2005;9:1–156
  97. Greenwood TA, Braff DL, Light GA, et al. Initial heritability analyses of endophenotypic measures for schizophrenia. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry. 2007;64:1242–1250
  98. Guillin O, Abi-Dargham A, Laruelle M. Neurobiology of dopamine in schizophrenia. Int. Rev. Neurobiol. 2007;78:1–39
  99. Gur R, Cowell P, Turetsky BI, et al. A follow-up magnetic resonance imaging study of schizophrenia. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry. 1998;55:145–152
  100. Gur RE, Calkins ME, Gur RC, et al. The Consortium on the Genetics of Schizophrenia: neurocognitive phenotypes. Schizophr. Bull. 2007;33:49–68
  101. Hafner H, an der Heiden W. The course of schizophrenia in the light of modern follow-up studies: the ABC and WHO studies. Eur. Arch. Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci. 1999;249(Suppl 4):14–26
  102. Hare EH. Schizophrenia as a recent disease. Br. J. Psychiatry. 1988;153:521–531
  103. Harris EC, Barraclough B. Excess mortality of mental disorder. Br. J. Psychiatry. 1998;173:11–53
  104. Harrison PJ. The neuropathology of schizophrenia: a critical review of the data and their interpretation. Brain. 1999;122:593–624
  105. Harrison PJ, Weinberger DR. Schizophrenia genes, gene expression, and neuropathology: on the matter of their convergence. Mol. Psychiatry. 2005;10:40–68
  106. Harrison G, Hopper K, Craig T, et al. Recovery from psychotic illness: a 15- and 25-year international follow-up study. Br. J. Psychiatry. 2001;178:506–517
  107. Harrison PJ, Freemantle N, Geddes JR. Meta-analysis of brain weight in schizophrenia. Schizophr. Res. 2003;64:25–34
  108. Haug JO. Pneumoencephalographic studies in mental disease. Acta Psychiatr. Scand., Suppl. 1962;165:1–114
  109. Hawton K, Sutton L, Haw C, et al. Schizophrenia and suicide: systematic review of risk factors. Br. J. Psychiatry. 2005;187:9–20
  110. Hegarty JD, Baldessarini RJ, Tohen M, et al. One hundred years of schizophrenia: a meta-analysis of the outcome literature. Am. J. Psychiatry. 1994;151:1409–1416
  111. Heinrichs RW. Meta-analysis and the science of schizophrenia: variant evidence or evidence of variants. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 2004;28:379–394
  112. Heinrichs RW, Zakzanis KK. Neurocognitive deficit in schizophrenia: a quantitative review of the evidence. Neuropsychology. 1998;12:426–445
  113. Hennen J, Baldessarini RJ. Suicidal risk during treatment with clozapine: a meta-analysis. Schizophr. Res. 2005;73:139–145
  114. Henquet C, Murray R, Linszen D, van Os J. The environment and schizophrenia: the role of cannabis use. Schizophr. Bull. 2005;31:608–612
  115. Henry JD, Crawford JR. A meta-analytic review of verbal fluency deficits in schizophrenia relative to other neurocognitive deficits. Cogn. Neuropsychiatry. 2005;10:1–33
  116. Hill K, Mann L, Laws KR, et al. Hypofrontality in schizophrenia: a meta-analysis of functional imaging studies. Acta Psychiatr. Scand. 2004;110:243–256
  117. Hippisley-Cox J, Vinogradova Y, Coupland C, Parker C. Risk of malignancy in patients with schizophrenia or bipolar disorder. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry. 2007;64:1368–1376
  118. Ho B-C, et al. Progressive structural brain abnormalities and their relationship to clinical outcome: a longitudinal magnetic resonance imaging study early in schizophrenia. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry. 2003;60:585–594
  119. Ho B-C, Andreasen NC, Dawson JD, Wassink TH. Association between brain-derived neurotrophic factor Val66Met gene polymorphism and progressive volume changes in schizophrenia. Am. J. Psychiatry. 2007;164:1890–1899
  120. Hoekert M, Kahn RS, Pijnenborg M, et al. Impaired recognition and expression of emotional prosody in schizophrenia: review and meta-analysis. Schizophr. Res. 2007;96:135–145
  121. Hoff A, Svetina C, Shields G, et al. Ten year longitudinal study of neuropsychological functioning subsequent to a first episode of schizophrenia. Schizophr. Res. 2005;78:27–34
  122. Hogarty GE, Anderson C, Reiss D, et al. Family psychoeducation, social skills training, and maintenance chemotherapy in the aftercare treatment of schizophrenia. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry. 1986;43:633–642
  123. Hogarty GE, Kornblith SJ, Greenwald D. Three year trials of personal therapy among schizophrenic patients living with or independent of family, I: description of study and effects on relapse rates. Am. J. Psychiatry. 1997;154:1504–1513
  124. Holzman PS. Eye movements and the search for the essence of schizophrenia. Brain. Res. Brains Res. Rev. 2000;31:350–356
  125. Holzman PS, Proctor LR, Hughes DW. Eye-tracking patterns in schizophrenia. Science. 1973;181:179–181
  126. Honea R, Crow TJ, Passingham D, Mackay CE. Regional deficits in brain volume in schizophrenia: a meta-analysis of voxel-based morphometry studies. Am. J. Psychiatry. 2005;162:2233–2245
  127. Horrobin DF, Glen AIM, Vaddadi KS. The membrane hypothesis of schizophrenia. Schizophr. Res. 1994;13:195–208
  128. Hughes C, Kumari V, Das M, et al. Cognitive functioning in siblings discordant for schizophrenia. Acta Psychiatr. Scand. 2005;111:185–192
  129. Ingvar DN, Franszen G. Abnormalities of cerebral blood flow distribution in patients with chronic schizophrenia. Acta Psychiatr. Scand. 1974;50:425–462
  130. Iritani S. Neuropathology of schizophrenia: a mini review. Neuropathology. 2007;27:604–608
  131. Itil T, Keskiner A, Kiremitci N, Holden JM. Effect of phenylcyclidine in chronic schizophrenics. Can. Psychiatr. Assoc. J. 1967;12:209–212
  132. Jablensky A. Subtyping schizophrenia: implications for genetic research. Mol. Psychiatry. 2006;11:815–836
  133. Jablensky A, Sartorius N, Ernberg G, et al. Schizophrenia: manifestations, incidence, and course in different cultures. Psychol. Med. 1992;22(Suppl 20):1–97
  134. Javitt DC, Zukin SR. Recent advances in the phenylcyclidine model of schizophrenia. Am. J. Psychiatry. 1991;148:1301–1308
  135. Javitt DC, Steinschneider M, Schroeder CE, et al. Role of cortical N-methyl-d-aspartate receptors in auditory sensory memory and mismatch negativity generation: implications for schizophrenia. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1996;93:11962–11967
  136. Jeon Y-W, Polich J. Meta-analysis of P300 and schizophrenia: patients, paradigms, and practical limitations. Psychophysiology. 2003;40:684–701
  137. Jeste DV, Del Carmen R, Lohr JB, Wyatt RJ. Did schizophrenia exist before the 18th century?. Compr. Psychiatry. 1985;26:493–503
  138. Johnstone EC, Crow TJ, Frith CD, et al. Cerebral ventricular size and cognitive impairment in chronic schizophrenia. Lancet. 1976;2:924–926
  139. Jones P, Rodgers B, Murray R, Marmot M. Child developmental risk factors for adult schizophrenia in the British 1946 birth cohort. Lancet. 1994;344:1398–1402
  140. Joyce E. Origins of cognitive dysfunction in schizophrenia: clues from age of onset. Br. J. Psychiatry. 2005;186:93–95
  141. Kanaan RA, Kim JS, Kaufmann WE, et al. Diffusion tensor imaging in schizophrenia. Biol. Psychiatry. 2005;58:921–929
  142. Kanazawa T, Glatt SJ, Kia-Keating B, et al. Meta-analysis reveals no association of the Val66Met polymorphism of brain-derived neurotrophic factor with either schizophrenia or bipolar disorder. Psychiatr. Genet. 2007;17:165–170
  143. Kane J, Honigfeld G, Singer J, Meltzer HY. Clozapine for the treatment-resistant schizophrenic. A double-blind comparison with chlorpromazine. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry. 1988;45:789–796
  144. Kapur S, Remington G. Dopamine D2 receptors and their role in antipsychotic action: still necessary and may even be sufficient. Biol. Psychiatry. 2001;50:873–883
  145. Kapur S, Zipursky R, Jones C, et al. Relationship between dopamine D(2) occupancy, clinical response, and side-effects: a double-blind PET study of first-episode schizophrenia. Am. J. Psychiatry. 2000;157:514–520
  146. Kapur S, Mizrahi R, Li M. From dopamine to salience to psychosis — linking biology, pharmacology, and pharmacology of psychosis. Schizophr. Res. 2005;79:59–68
  147. Keefe RSE, Bilder RM, Davis SM, et al. Neurocognitive effects of antipsychotic medications in patients with chronic schizophrenia in the CATIE trial. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry. 2007;64:633–647
  148. Kendell RE. Diagnosis and classification of functional psychoses. Br. Med. Bull. 1987;43:499–513
  149. Kendell RE, Brockington IF. The identification of disease entities and the relationship between schizophrenic and affective psychoses. Br. J. Psychiatry. 1980;137:324–331
  150. Kendell RE, Jablensky A. Distinguishing between the validity and utility of psychiatric diagnoses. Am. J. Psychiatry. 2003;160:4–12
  151. Keshavan MS, Anderson SA, Pettegrew JW. Is schizophrenia due to excessive synaptic pruning within prefrontal cortex?. J. Psychiatr. Res. 1994;28:239–265
  152. Keshavan MS, Stanley JA, Pettegrew JW. Magnetic resonance spectroscopy in schizophrenia. Biol. Psychiatry. 2000;48:369–380
  153. Keshavan MS, Diwadkar VA, Montrose DM, et al. Premorbid indicators and risk for schizophrenia: a selective review and update. Schizophr. Res. 2005;79:45–57
  154. Keshavan MS, Prasad KM, Pearlson G. Are brain structural abnormalities useful as endophenotypes in schizophrenia?. Int. Rev. Psychiatry. 2007;19:397–406
  155. Kirkbride JB, Fearon P, Morgan C, et al. Heterogeneity in incidence rates of schizophrenia and other psychotic syndromes: findings from the 3-center Aetiology and Ethnicity in Schizophrenia and Related Psychosis (AeSOP) study. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry. 2006;63:250–258
  156. Kraepelin E. In:  Robertson GM editors. Dementia Praecox and Paraphrenia, 1919. New York: Krieger; 1971;
  157. Krystal JH, D'Souza DC, Mathalon D, et al. NMDA receptor antagonistic effects, cortical glutamatergic function, and schizophrenia; toward a paradigm shift in medication development. Psychopharmacology. 2003;169:215–233
  158. Kubicki M, McCarley R, Westin C-F, et al. A review of diffusion tensor imaging studies in schizophrenia. J. Psychiatr. Res. 2007;41:15–30
  159. Laruelle M, Abi-Dargham A. Dopamine as the wind of the psychotic fire: new evidence from brain imaging studies. J. Psychopharmacol. 1999;13:358–371
  160. Laruelle M, Abi-Dargham A, Van Dyck CH, et al. Single photon emission computerized tomography imaging of amphetamine-induced dopamine release in drug-free schizophrenic subjects. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1996;93:9235–9240
  161. Law A, Lipska BK, Weickert CS, et al. Neuregulin 1 transcripts are differentially expressed in schizophrenia and regulated by 5 SNPs associated with the disease. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2006;103:6747–6752
  162. Lawrence DM, Holman CD, Jablensky A, Hobbs MS. Death rate from ischemic heart disease in Western Australian psychiatric patients 1980–1998. Br. J. Psychiatry. 2003;182:31–36
  163. Lawrie SM, Abukmeil SS. Brain abnormality in schizophrenia. A systematic and quantitative review of volumetric magnetic resonance imaging studies. Br. J. Psychiatry. 1988;172:110–120
  164. Lawrie SM, Whalley H, Kestelman JN, et al. Magnetic resonance imaging of brain in people at high risk of developing schizophrenia. Lancet. 1999;353:30–33
  165. Laws KR. A meta-analytic review of the Wisconsin Card Sort studies in schizophrenia: general intellectual deficit in disguise?. Cogn. Neuropsychiatry. 1999;4:1–30
  166. Lee J, Park S. Working memory impairments in schizophrenia: a meta-analysis. J. Abnormal Psychology. 2005;114:599–611
  167. Lencz T, Lambert C, DeRosse P, et al. Runs of homozygosity reveal highly penetrant recessive loci in schizophrenia. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 2007;104:19942–19947
  168. Le-Niculescu H, Balaraman Y, Patel S, et al. Towards understanding the schizophrenia code: an expanded convergent functional genomics approach. Am. J. Med. Genet. B. Neuropsychiatr. Genet. 2007;144:129–158
  169. Leucht S, Burkard T, Henderson J, et al. Physical illness and schizophrenia: a review of the literature. Acta Psychiatr. Scand. 2007;116:317–333
  170. Levy DL, O'Driscoll G, Matthysse S, et al. Antisaccade performance in biological relatives of schizophrenia patients: a meta-analysis. Schizophr. Res. 2004;71:113–125
  171. Lewis DA, Hashimoto T. Deciphering the disease process of schizophrenia: the contribution of cortical GABA neurons. Int. Rev. Neurobiol. 2007;78:109–131
  172. Lewis G, David A, Andreasson S, Allebeck P. Schizophrenia and city life. Lancet. 1992;340:137–140
  173. Lewis CM, Levinson DF, Wise LH, et al. Genome scan meta-analysis of schizophrenia and bipolar disorder, part II: schizophrenia. Am. J. Hum. Genet. 2003;73:34–48
  174. Lewis SW, Barnes TR, Davies L, et al. Randomized controlled trial of effect of prescription of clozapine versus other second-generation antipsychotic drugs in resistant schizophrenia. Schizophr. Bull. 2006;32:715–723
  175. Li D, He L. Association study between the dystrobrevin binding protein 1 gene (DTNBP1) and schizophrenia: a meta-analysis. Schizophr. Res. 2007;96:112–118
  176. Li D, He L. G72/G30 genes and schizophrenia: a systematic meta-analysis of association studies. Genetics. 2007;175:917–922
  177. Liddle PF. The symptoms of chronic schizophrenia: a re-examination of the positive–negative dichotomy. Br. J. Psychiatry. 1987;151:145–151
  178. Lieberman JA, Kane JM, Alvir J. Provocative tests with psychostimulant drugs in schizophrenia. Psychopharmacology. 1987;91:415–433
  179. Lieberman JA, Chakos M, Wu H, et al. Longitudinal study of brain morphology in first-episode schizophrenia. Biol. Psychiatry. 2001;49:487–499
  180. Lieberman JA, Stroup TS, McEvoy JP, et al. Effectiveness of antipsychotic drugs in schizophrenia. N. Engl. J. Med. 2005;353:1209–1223
  181. Lieberman JA, Tollefson GD, Charles C, et al. Antipsychotic drug effects on brain structure in first-episode psychosis. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry. 2005;62:361–370
  182. Lincoln TM, Wilhelm K, Nestoriuc . Effectiveness of psychoeducation for relapse, symptoms, knowledge, adherence, and functioning in psychotic disorders: a meta-analysis. Schizophr. Res. 2007;96:232–245
  183. Loebel AD, Lieberman JA, Alvir JMJ, et al. Duration of psychosis and outcome in first-episode schizophrenia. Am. J. Psychiatry. 1992;149:1183–1188
  184. Malaspina D, Corcoran C, Fahim C, et al. Paternal age and sporadic schizophrenia: evidence for de-novo mutation. Am. J. Med. Genet. 2002;114:299–303
  185. Mathalon D, Sullivan EV, Lim KO, Pfefferbaum A. Progressive brain volume changes and the clinical course of schizophrenia in men. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry. 2001;58:148–157
  186. McClellan J, Susser E, King M-C. Schizophrenia: a common disease caused by multiple rare alleles. Br. J. Psychiatry. 2007;190:194–199
  187. McCue M, Gottesman II, Rao DC. The transmission of schizophrenia under a multifactorial threshold model. Am. J. Hum. Genet. 1983;35:1161–1178
  188. McEvoy JP, Lieberman JA, Stroup JP, et al. Effectiveness of clozapine versus olanzapine, quetiapine, and risperidone in patients with chronic schizophrenia who did not respond to prior antipsychotic treatment. Am. J. Psychiatry. 2006;163:600–610
  189. McGlashan TH. Is active psychosis neurotoxic?. Schizohr. Bull. 2006;32:609–613
  190. McGrath JJ. The surprisingly rich contours of schizophrenia epidemiology. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry. 2007;64:14–16
  191. McGrath JJ, Welham JL. Season of birth and schizophrenia: a systematic review and meta-analysis of data from the Southern Hemisphere. Schizophr. Res. 1999;35:237–242
  192. McGrath J, Saha S, Welham J, et al. A systematic review of the incidence of schizophrenia. BMC. Med. 2004;2:13
  193. McGurk SR, Twamley EW, Sitzer DI, et al. A meta-analysis of cognitive remediation in schizophrenia. Am. J. Psychiatry. 2007;164:1791–1802
  194. Mednick SA, Machon RA, Huttunen MO, Bonett D. Adult schizophrenia following exposure to an influenza epidemic. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry. 1988;45:189–192
  195. Mellor CS. First rank symptoms of schizophrenia. Br. J. Psychiatry. 1970;117:15–23
  196. Meltzer HY, Alphs L, Green AI, et al. Clozapine treatment for suicidality in schizophrenia: International Suicide Prevention Trial (InterSePT). Arch. Gen. Psychiatry. 2003;60:82–91
  197. Moghaddam B. Stress activation of glutamate neurotransmission in the prefrontal cortex: implications for dopamine-associated psychiatric disorders. Biol. Psychiatry. 2002;51:775–787
  198. Monti JM, Monti D. Sleep disturbance in schizophrenia. Int. Rev. Psychiatry. 2005;17:247–253
  199. Moore THM, Zammit S, Lingford-Hughes A, et al. Cannabis use and risk of psychotic or affective mental health outcomes: a systematic review. Lancet. 2007;370:319–328
  200. Morrison JR. Changes in subtype diagnosis of schizophrenia: 1920–1966. Am. J. Psychiatry. 1974;131:674–677
  201. Mortensen PB, Pedersen CB, Westergaard T, et al. Effects of family history and place and season of birth on the risk of schizophrenia. N. Engl. J. Med. 1999;340:603–608
  202. Munafo MR, Bowes L, Clark TG, et al. Lack of an association of the COMT (Val158/108Met) gene and schizophrenia: a meta-analysis of case-control studies. Mol. Psychiatry. 2005;10:765–770
  203. Munk Laursen T, Munk-Olsen T, Nordentoft M, Bo Mortensen P. A comparison of selected risk factors for unipolar depressive disorder, bipolar affective disorder, and schizophrenia from a Danish population-based cohort. J. Clin. Psychiatry. 2007;68:1673–1681
  204. In:  Murray CJL,  Lopez AD editor. The Global Burden of Disease: a Comprehensive Assessment of Mortality and Disability from Diseases, Injuries, and Risk Factors in 1990 and Projected to 2020. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press; 1996;
  205. Nasrallah HA, Skinner TE, Shmalbrock P, Robitaille PM. Proton magnetic resonance (1H MRS) of the hippocampal formation in schizophrenia: a pilot study. Br. J. Psychiatry. 1994;165:481–485
  206. Nasrallah HA, Meyer JM, Goff DC, et al. Low rates of treatment for hypertension, dyslipidemia and diabetes in schizophrenia: data from the CATIE schizophrenia trial sample at baseline. Schizophr. Res. 2006;86:15–22
  207. Nelson MD, Saykin AJ, Flashman LA, Riordan HJ. Hippocampal volume reduction in schizophrenia as assessed by magnetic resonance imaging. A meta-analytic study. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry. 1998;55:433–440
  208. Nesvag R, Lawyer G, Varnas K, et al. Regional thinning of cerebral cortex in schizophrenia: effects of diagnosis, age and antipsychotic medication. Schizophr. Res. 2008;98:16–28
  209. Newcomer JW, Hennekens CH. Severe mental illness and risk of cardiovascular disease. JAMA. 2007;298:1794–1796
  210. Noble JH. Meta-analysis: methods, strengths, weaknesses, and political uses. J. Clin. Lab. Med. 2006;147:7–20
  211. Norman RMG, Malla AK. Stressful life events and schizophrenia I: a review of the research. Br. J. Psychiatry. 1993;162:161–166
  212. Oken RJ, Schulzer M. At issue: schizophrenia and rheumatoid arthritis: the negative association revisited. Schizophr. Bull. 1999;25:625–638
  213. Olney JW, Farber NB. Glutamate receptor dysfunction and schizophrenia. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry. 1995;52:998–1007
  214. Olsen KA, Rosenbaum B. Prospective investigations of the prodromal state of schizophrenia. Acta Psychiatr. Scand. 2006;113:247–272
  215. Osby U, Correia N, Brandt L, et al. Mortality and causes of death in Stockholm county, Sweden. Schizophr. Res. 2000;45:21–28
  216. Owen MJ, Craddock N, O'Donovan MC. Schizophrenia: genes at last?. Trends Genet. 2005;21:518–525
  217. Owen MJ, Craddock N, Jablensky A. The genetic deconstruction of psychosis. Schizophr. Bull. 2007;33:905–911
  218. Owens DGC, Miller P, Lawrie SM, Johnstone EC. Pathogenesis of schizophrenia: a psychopathological perspective. Br. J. Psychiatry. 2005;186:386–393
  219. Pakkeberg B. Post-mortem study of chronic schizophrenic brains. Br. J. Psychiatry. 1987;151:744–752
  220. Palmer BA, Pankratz VS, Bostwick JM. The lifetime risk of suicide in schizophrenia: a re-examination. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry. 2005;62:247–253
  221. Pantelis C, Velakoulis D, McGorry PD, et al. Neuroanatomical abnormalities before and after onset of psychosis: a cross-sectional and longitudinal MRI comparison. Lancet. 2002;361:281–288
  222. Pantelis M, Yucei M, Wood SJ, et al. Structural brain imaging for multiple pathological processes at different stages of schizophrenic illness. Schizophr. Bull. 2005;31:672–696
  223. Parks J, Svendsen D, Singer P, Foti M. Morbidity and Mortality in People with Serious Mental Illness. Alexandria, Virginia: National Association of State Mental Health Program Directors (NASMHPD) Medical Directors Council; 2006;Available at www.nasmhpd.org/publications/technical reports
  224. Patterson JV, Hetrick WP, Boutros NN, et al. P50 sensory gating ratios in schizophrenics and controls: a review and data analysis. Psychiatry Res. PMID. 2008;18187207, Electronic publication
  225. Pedersen CB, Mortensen PB. Evidence of a dose–response relationship between urbanicity during upbringing and schizophrenia risk. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry. 2001;58:1039–1046
  226. Peralta V, Cuesta MJ. Clinical models of schizophrenia: a critical approach to competing conceptions. Psychopathology. 2000;33:252–258
  227. Perkins DO, Gu H, Boteva K, et al. Relationship between duration of untreated psychosis and outcome in first-episode schizophrenia: a critical review and meta-analysis. Am. J. Psychiatry. 2005;162:1785–1804
  228. Pettegrew JW, Keshavan MS, Panchalingam K, et al. Alterations in brain high-energy phosphate and membrane phospholipid metabolism in first-episode, drug-naïve schizophrenics. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry. 1991;48:563–568
  229. Phillips LJ, McGorry HP, Garner B, et al. Stress, the hippocampus and the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis: implications for the development of psychotic disorders. Aust. N.Z. J. Psychiatry. 2006;40:725–741
  230. Phillips LJ, McGorry HP, Yuen J, et al. Medium term follow-up of a randomized controlled trial of interventions for young people at ultra high risk for schizophrenia. Schizophr. Res. 2007;96:25–33
  231. Pilling S, Bebbington P, Kuipers E, et al. Psychological treatments in schizophrenia: I. Meta-analysis of family intervention and cognitive behavior therapy. Psychol. Med. 2002;32:763–782
  232. Pilling S, Bebbington P, Kuipers E, et al. Psychological treatments in schizophrenia: II. Meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials of social skills training and cognitive remediation. Psychol. Med. 2002;32:783–791
  233. Pitschel-Walz G, Leucht S, Bauml J, et al. The effect of family interventions on relapse and rehospitalization in schizophrenia: a meta-analysis. Schizophr. Bull. 2001;27:73–92
  234. Potter D, Summerfelt A, Gold J, Buchanan RW. Review of clinical correlates of P50 sensory gating abnormalities in patients with schizophrenia. Schizophr. Bull. 2006;32:692–700
  235. Raedler TJ, Bymaster FP, Tandon R, et al. Towards a muscarinic hypothesis of schizophrenia. Mol. Psychiatry. 2007;12:232–246
  236. Regier DA, Farmer ME, Rae DS, et al. Comorbidity of mental disorders with alcohol and other drug abuse. Results from the epidemiologic catchment area (ECA) survey. JAMA. 1990;264:2511–2518
  237. Reichenberg A, Weiser M, Rapp MA, et al. Elaboration on premorbid intellectual performance in schizophrenia: intellectual decline and risk for schizophrenia. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry. 2005;62:1297–1304
  238. Risch N. Linkage strategies for genetically complex traits. 1. Multilocus models. Am. J. Hum. Genet. 1990;46:222–228
  239. Robins E, Guze SB. Establishment of diagnostic validity in psychiatric illness: its application to schizophrenia. Am. J. Psychiatry. 1970;126:983–987
  240. In:  Robins LN,  Regier DA editor. Psychiatric Disorders in North America. New York: The Free Press; 1991;
  241. Saha S, Chant D, Welham J, McGrath J. A systematic review of the prevalence of schizophrenia. PLoS. Med. 2005;2:413–433
  242. Saha S, Welham J, Chant D, McGrath J. Incidence of schizophrenia does not vary with economic status of the country. Soc. Psychiatry Psychiatr. Epidemiol. 2006;41:338–340
  243. Saha S, Chant D, McGrath J. A systematic review of mortality in schizophrenia: is the differential mortality gap worsening over time. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry. 2007;64:1123–1131
  244. Sanders AR, Duan J, Levinson DF, et al. No significant association of 14 candidate genes with schizophrenia in a large European ancestry sample: implications for psychiatric genetics. Am. J. Psychiatry PMID. 2008;18198266, Electronic publication
  245. Sartorius N, Jablensky A, Korten A, et al. Early manifestations and first-contact incidence of schizophrenia in different cultures. Psychol. Med. 1986;16:909–926
  246. Saykin AJ, Gur RC, Gur RE, et al. Neuropsychological function in schizophrenia: selective impairment in memory and learning. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry. 1991;48:618–624
  247. Saykin AJ, Shtasel DL, Gur RE, et al. Neuropsychological deficits in neuroleptic-naïve patients with first-episode schizophrenia. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry. 1994;51:124–131
  248. Scherk H, Falkai P. Effects of antipsychotics on brain structure. Curr. Opin. Psychiatry. 2006;19:145–150
  249. Seeman MV. Gender differences in schizophrenia. Can. J. Psychiatry. 1982;27:107–112
  250. Seeman MV. An outcome measure in schizophrenia: mortality. Can. J. Psychiatry. 2007;52:55–60
  251. Selemon LD, Goldman-Rakic PS. The reduced neuropil hypothesis: a circuit-based model of schizophrenia. Biol. Psychiatry. 1999;45:17–25
  252. Semple DM, McIntosh AM, Lawrie SM. Cannabis as a risk factor for psychosis: systematic review. J. Psychopharmacol. 2005;19:187–194
  253. Shaner A, Miller G, Mintz J. Evidence of a latitudinal gradient in the age of onset of schizophrenia. Schizophr. Res. 2007;94:58–63
  254. Shenton ME, Dickey CC, Frumin M, McCarley RW. A review of MRI findings in schizophrenia. Schizophr. Res. 2001;49:1–52
  255. Shi J, Badner JA, Gershon ES, Liu C. Allelic association of G72/G30 with schizophrenia and bipolar disorder: a comprehensive meta-analysis. Schizophr. Res. 2008;98:89–97
  256. Sitskoorn MM, Aleman A, Ebisch SJ, et al. Cognitive deficits in relatives of patients with schizophrenia: a meta-analysis. Schizophr. Res. 2004;71:285–295
  257. Snitz BE, Macdonald AW, Carter CS. Cognitive deficits in unaffected first-degree relatives of schizophrenia patients: a meta-analytic review of putative phenotypes. Schizophr. Bull. 2006;32:179–194
  258. Somner I, Ramsey N, Kahn R, et al. Handedness, language lateralization and anatomical asymmetry in schizophrenia: a meta-analysis. Br. J. Psychiatry. 2001;178:344–351
  259. Sporn AL, Greenstein DK, Gogtay N, et al. Progressive brain volume loss during adolescence in childhood-onset schizophrenia. Am. J. Psychiatry. 2003;160:2181–2189
  260. Sprong M, Schothorst P, Vos E, et al. Theory of mind in schizophrenia: meta-analysis. Br. J. Psychiatry. 2007;19:5–13
  261. St Clair D, Xu M, Wang P, et al. Rates of adult schizophrenia following prenatal exposure to the Chinese famine of 1959–61. JAMA. 2005;294:557–562
  262. Steen RG, Hamer RM, Lieberman JA. Measurement of brain metabolites by 1H magnetic resonance spectroscopy in patients with schizophrenia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2005;30:1949–1962
  263. Steen RG, Mull C, McClure R, et al. Brain volume in first-episode schizophrenia: systematic review and meta-analysis of magnetic resonance imaging studies. Br. J. Psychiatry. 2006;188:510–518
  264. Steurer J, Bachmann LM, Miettinen OS. Etiology in a taxonomy of illnesses. Eur. J. Epidemiol. 2006;21:85–89
  265. Stone JM, Morrison PD, Pilowsky LS. Glutamate and dopamine dysregulation in schizophrenia — a synthesis and selective review. J. Psychopharm. 2007;21:440–452
  266. Straub RE, Weinberger DR. Schizophrenia genes: famine to feast. Biol. Psychiatry. 2006;60:81–83
  267. Strauss JS, Carpenter WT, Bartko JJ. The diagnosis and understanding of schizophrenia, III. Speculations on the processes that underlie schizophrenic symptoms and signs. Schizophr. Bull. 1974;(11):61–69Winter
  268. Suddath RL, Christison GW, Torrey EF, et al. Anatomical abnormalities in the brains of monozygotic twins discordant for schizophrenia. N. Engl. J. Med. 1990;322:789–794
  269. Sullivan PF. Spurious genetic associations. Biol. Psychiatry. 2007;61:1121–1126
  270. Sullivan PF, Kendler KS, Neale MC. Schizophrenia as a complex trait: evidence from a meta-analysis of twin studies. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry. 2003;60:1187–1192
  271. Susser E, Neugebauer R, Hoek HW, et al. Schizophrenia after prenatal famine. Further evidence. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry. 1996;53:25–31
  272. Swanson JW, Holzer CE, Ganju VK, et al. Violence and psychiatric disorder in the community: evidence from the Epidemiologic Catchment Area surveys. Hosp. Community Psychiatry. 1990;41:761–770
  273. Szoke A, Schurhoff F, Mathieu F, et al. Tests of executive function in first-degree relatives of schizophrenic patients: a meta-analysis. Psychol. Med. 2005;35:771–782
  274. Tandon R. Moving beyond findings: concepts and model-building in schizophrenia. J. Psychiatr. Res. 1999;33:467–471
  275. Tandon R, Mazzara C, DeQuardo JR, et al. Dexamethasone suppression test in schizophrenia: relationship to symptomatology, ventricular enlargement, and outcome. Biol. Psychiatry. 1991;29:953–964
  276. Tandon R, Moller H-J, Belmaker RH, et al. World Psychiatry Association Pharmacopsychiatry Section statement on comparative effectiveness of antipsychotics in the treatment of schizophrenia. Schizophr, Res. 2008;100:20–38(this issue)
  277. Torrey EF. Schizophrenia and Civilization. New York: Jason Aronson; 1980;
  278. Tost H, Ende G, Ruf M, et al. Functional imaging research in schizophrenia. International. Rev. Neurobiol. 2005;67:95–118
  279. Toulopoulou T, Picchioni M, Rijsdijk F, et al. Substantial genetic overlap between neurocognition and schizophrenia. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry. 2007;64:1348–1355
  280. Trandafir A, Meary A, Schurhoff F, et al. Memory tests in first-degree adult relatives of schizophrenic patients: a meta-analysis. Schizophr. Res. 2006;81:217–226
  281. Tuominen HJ, Tiihonen J, Wahlbeck K. Glutamatergic drugs for schizophrenia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Schizophr. Res. 2005;72:225–234
  282. Turetsky BI, Calkins ME, Light GA, et al. Neurophysiological endophenotypes of schizophrenia: the viability of selected candidate measures. Schizophr. Bull. 2007;33:69–94
  283. Turkington D, Sensky T, Scott J, et al. A randomized controlled trial of cognitive-behavior therapy for persistent symptoms in schizophrenia: a five-year follow-up. Schizophr. Res. 2008;98:1–7
  284. Turner JA, Smyth P, Macciardi F, et al. Imaging phenotypes and genotypes in schizophrenia. Neuroinformatics. 2006;4:21–49
  285. Umbricht D, Krljes S. Mismatch negativity in schizophrenia: a meta-analysis. Schizophr. Res. 2005;76:1–23
  286. VanHorn JD, McManus IC. Ventricular enlargement in schizophrenia: a meta-analysis of studies of the ventricle–brain ratio. Br. J. Psychiatry. 1992;160:687–697
  287. Vita A, De Peri L, Silenzi C, et al. Brain morphology in first-episode schizophrenia: a meta-analysis of quantitative magnetic resonance imaging studies. Schizophr. Res. 2006;82:75–88
  288. Volk DW, Austin MC, Pierri JN, et al. Decreased glutamic acid decarboxylase67 messenger expression in a subset of gamma-aminobutryic acid neurons in subjects with schizophrenia. Am. J. Psychiatry. 2000;57:237–245
  289. Wahlbeck K, Cheine M, Essali A, Adams C. Evidence of clozapine's effectiveness in schizophrenia: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized trials. Am. J. Psychiatry. 1999;156:990–999
  290. Waldo MC, Adler LE, Freedman R. Defects in auditory sensory gating and their apparent compensation in relatives of schizophrenics. Schizophr. Res. 1988;1:19–24
  291. Ward KE, Friedman L, Wise A, Schulz SC. Meta-analysis of brain and cranial size in schizophrenia. Schizophr. Res. 1996;22:197–213
  292. Wassef A, Baker J, Kochan LD. GABA and schizophrenia: a review of basic science and clinical studies. J. Clin. Psychopharmacol. 2003;23:601–640
  293. Webster MJ, Knable MB, O'Grady J, et al. Regional specificity of brain glucocorticoid receptor mRNA alterations in subjects with schizophrenia and mood disorders. Mol. Psychiatry. 2002;7:985–994
  294. Weinberg SM, Jenkins EA, Marazita ML, Maher BS. Minor physical anomalies in schizophrenia: a meta-analysis. Schizophr. Res. 2007;89:72–85
  295. Weinberger DR, McClure RK. Neurotoxicity, neuroplasticity, and magnetic resonance imaging morphometry: what is happening in the schizophrenic brain?. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry. 2002;59:553–558
  296. Weinberger DR, Berman KF, Zec RF. Physiologic dysfunction of dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in schizophrenia. I. Regional cerebral blood flow evidence. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry. 1986;43:114–124
  297. Whitehead C, Moss S, Cardno A, et al. Antidepressants for the treatment of depression in schizophrenia: a systematic review. Psychol. Med. 2003;33:589–599
  298. Whyte MC, McIntosh AM, Johnstone EC, et al. Declarative memory in unaffected adult relatives of patients with schizophrenia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Schizophr. Res. 2005;78:13–26
  299. Wohl M, Gorwood P. Paternal ages below or above 35 years old are associated with a different risk of schizophrenia in the offspring. Eur. Psychiatry. 2007;22:22–26
  300. Woods BT, Ward KE, Johnson EH. Meta-analysis of the time-course of brain volume reduction in schizophrenia: implications for pathogenesis and early treatment. Schizophr. Res. 2005;73:221–228
  301. World Health Organization . The International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems, Tenth Revision (ICD-10) — Section V. Mental and Behavioral Disorders. Geneva: World Health Organization; 1992;
  302. World Health Organization . Mental Health Report 2001. Mental Health: New Understanding, New Hope. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2001;
  303. Wright IC, Rabe-Hesketh S, Woodruff PW, et al. Meta-analysis of regional brain volumes in schizophrenia. Am. J. Psychiatry. 2000;157:16–25
  304. Wyatt RJ, Hunter I. Rationale for the study of early intervention. Schizophr. Res. 2001;51:69–76
  305. Wyatt RJ, Alexander RC, Egan MF, Kirch DG. Schizophrenia, just the facts. What do we know, how well do we know it?. Schizophr. Res. 1988;1:3–18
  306. Xia J, Li C. Problem solving skills for schizophrenia. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 2007;C006365
  307. Yuii K, Suzuki M, Kurachi M. Stress sensitization in schizophrenia. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 2007;1113:276–290
  308. Zakzanis KK, Poulin P, Hansen KT, et al. Searching the schizophrenic brain for temporal lobe deficits: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychol. Med. 2000;30:491–504
  309. Zimmermann G, Favrod J, Trieu VH, et al. The effect of cognitive behavioral treatment on the positive symptoms of schizophrenia spectrum disorders: a meta-analysis. Schizophr. Res. 2005;77:1–9
  310. Zipursky RB, Lim KO, Sullivan EV, et al. Widespread cerebral gray matter volume deficits in schizophrenia. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry. 1992;49:195–205

PII: S0920-9964(08)00071-6

doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2008.01.022

Schizophrenia Research
Volume 100, Issue 1 , Pages 4-19 , March 2008

Article Tools

* Image Usage & Resolution